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One of the precepts of Total Quality Management,
and now continued into Six Sigma, is that
groups generally make better decisions than
individuals, and that the group should be
cross-functional. It should include everybody
who can contribute, regardless of their
position in the hierarchy, rather than just
specialized individuals.
This section includes a selection of tools
that are best used by groups. They are either
graphical methods that promote group input,
or ways of capturing the individual inputs
and then refining them to discover the best
solution, and to achieve 'buy in' to that
solution.
A team-based method of organizing large
amounts of data. Typically, brainstormed
ideas are written on ‘sticky notes’. These
are stuck to a wall and progressively organized
into logical groupings by the participants.
A method of encouraging a team to generate
creative ideas. All ideas are written down,
and no idea, however apparently silly, is
criticized. The list can be culled later
using other methods e.g. multivoting.
| Cause
and Effect Diagrams |
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A graphical tool used to list
and categorize possible causes of a problem.
It looks like a fish skeleton and is sometimes
called a ‘fishbone diagram’.
The main categories are often selected
as Methods, Equipment, Personnel, Materials,
but this is optional:
See Cause and Effect Diagram
Design Failure Mode and Effects
Analysis. This applies when FMEA is carried
out at the design stage and looks at ways
the item can fail during use. Potential
failure modes include failures from the
item becoming defective and through the
way the item is used.
The failure modes for a step
ladder could include potential failure because
a component could corrode and fail. They
could also include a potential failure because
the user's foot could slip on the treads.
| Failure
Mode and Effects Analysis |
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A method for evaluating risk. Each potential
failure mode is evaluated for:
S: the severity of the
consequences if it does occur
O: the probability of
occurrence
D: the probability of
detection before shipping.
Each of these is rated on a scale from
1 to 10, and the three values multiplied
to find the Risk Priority Number (RPN).
If the RPN is above a specified threshold,
action is taken to reduce it. The FMEA is
often used as the basis for Control.
See Cause and Effect Diagrams
See Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
A team based method of brainstorming the
'drivers' and 'restraints' that affect progress
to a desired goal:
| Interest
Based Bargaining |
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A type of negotiation based
on finding a solution that serves the interests
of all parties, also known as win-win negotiation.
It has five characteristics:
- bargaining over positions is avoided
- people are separated from the problem
- focus is placed on interests, not positions
- options for mutual gain are invented
- objective criteria are used to select
the appropriate resolution to an issue
| Interrelationship
Diagram |
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Ideas gathered through, eg. affinity diagrams,
are grouped in a circular pattern on a flip
chart. Arrows are drawn to show the relationships
between items, leading from Cause to Effect:
The number of arrows leading
'in' and 'out' of each item are counted
and tabulated.
Items that have a high number
of 'out' arrows are important drivers. A
high number of 'in' arrows suggests important
outcomes and candidates for measures of
success.
See Cause and Effect Diagram
A similar idea to Nominal Group Technique.
- brainstorm a list of options
- review the list, combining similar
ideas etc.
- vote for the items worth further discussion
- no limit on the number of choices,
participants can vote for all items
if they like
- the items that are voted for by at
least half the participants go to the
next round
- vote again, this time each participant
can only vote for half the remaining
items
- continue until only four of five ideas
remain for discussion
- proceed with appropriate action
A method for generating a short list of
items to be acted on:
Stage 1:
- make sure the purpose of the activity
is clearly understood, as is the NGT procedure
- each member of the group writes down
ideas in silence
- discuss and clarify the ideas
Stage 2:
- cull the list of ideas to a manageable
size, say 50
- members are given index cards, around
one card for every 5 ideas listed
- group members write down their choices
of ideas on the cards, one choice per
card, and ranks the ideas
- summarize the scores on the whiteboard
and try to agree which will be actioned
Process Failure Modes and
Effects Analysis. The is FMEA applied to
a process.
If the process is to make
a step ladder, potential failure modes could
include the possibility of an anti-corrosive
coating being incorrectly applied, or a
fastener being tightened correctly.
| Process
Decision Program Chart |
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A similar idea to FMEA. It uses a Decision
Tree approach to explore the consequences
of decisions:
See Failure Modes and Effects Analysis
Risk Priority Number, see Failure Modes
and Effects Analysis
A diagram that breaks objectives, ideas,
or tasks down into smaller elements that
can be addressed:
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